Controlling Freedom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Controlling Freedom - Essay Example The propaganda model propsed by Chomsky argues that the maintenance of control over the media is a result of free market forces operating on a daily basis and does not necessarily require conscious planning. The framing of conditions and accidental necessity needed to do this can be compared to a that of a crystalline structure. By pouring a stream of balls over a flat box like frame we inevitably end up with a perfect pyramid structure. In the same way by pouring news, information and ideas into the basic framework of free market goals we end up with a self building pyramid where by supportive elements within the pyramid find themselves in stable positions and those unsupportive elements of the pyramid are simply forced out. The framing of these conditions which facilitate the building of these near perfect crystalline structures are called the five reality filters. The first filter is related to the size, ownership and expense of producing media. The second argues that the media ar e heavily dependent on advertising and sponsorship, thus content has to follow 'advertiser friendly lines' or risk loosing vital funding. Thirdly, resources are concentrated where significant news is likely to occur, while non routine sources of news often struggle to find access to the media. The fourth filter, called Flak, refers to the negative responses that are received by media due to a program or article. Just as supportive media is naturally assisted, unsupportive media is attacked and vilified. The last filter is called 'anti-communism' and refers to the need for a common enemy. Throughout history we see examples of the creation of new 'evil empires' ( communists , Islamic terrorists etc) which threaten the status quo, requiring the production of more arms and therefore increasing economic activity and generating important revenue. In testing the hypothesis there are numerous examples of media attention being directed to serve corporate interests and government agendas. Truth filtration also extends to media black holes, where unsuitable truths are simply not reported. A horrific example of this is East Timor, where Indonesian brutalities administered from weapons traded in multi million pound deals with the British, huge oil reserves and an amiable dictatorship ensured the smooth functioning of the filter system. The vast majority of the general public were unaware of the massive human rights abuses and atrocities taking place. Ignoring, silencing and not giving voices to those that contradict the 'line' is another filtration system which ensures the ongoing passivity of the general public. The Iraq war in 1993 saw the whipping up of an effective media campaign against Iraq and its evil dictator that had invaded Kuwait. The just and noble forces of freedom went into action backed by the media. Clark in his book The Fire This Time, US War Crimes in the Gulf demonstrates how the western version of media events was untrue and that the war was in fact set up, manipulated and brought about to remove obstructions to western economic interests. Other examples of the propaganda model in action can be seen with examples such as global warming. In 1990, despite government unanimity on its existence and the potentially

Bending Stresses in a T-Beam Experiment Essay Example for Free

Bending Stresses in a T-Beam Experiment Essay Realistic and verifiable experiment results †¢ Optional TecQuipment’s Structures Software package for extra ‘virtual’ experiments that simulate and confirm the results from your hardware and allow extended experiments †¢ Optional STR2000 unit including TecQuipment’s Structures Software package for automatic data acquisition and virtual experiments †¢ One of many interchangeable experiment modules from TecQuipment’s modern, flexible and costeffective Structures teaching system †¢ Ideal for classroom demonstrations, or students working in pairs or small groups. The experiment hardware is a T-beam that fits onto a Structures Test Frame (STR1, available separately). Students adjust a load cell that bends the beam and, when connected to the optional Digital Force Display (STR1a, available separately), it measures the bending force (load). Strain gauges and a digital strain bridge measure the strains in the beam. Dummy strain gauges compensate for temperature variation and balance the strain bridges. The equipment includes a lead for connection to the Digital Force Display (STR1a, available separately). The lecturer guide provides details of the equipment including sample experiment results. The student guide describes how to use the equipment and gives experiment procedures. For extra ‘virtual’ experiments, TecQuipment can supply the optional TecQuipment Structures Software (STRS), for use on a suitable computer. The virtual experiments simulate the tests that you do with the hardware. They also extend the choice of tests than that available using only the hardware, for example: higher loads, uniform loads or different test specimens. This extends the student’s learning experience. For automatic data acquisition of your experiment results, TecQuipment can supply the optional Automatic Data Acquisition Unit (STR2000). Supplied as standard with the STR2000 is TecQuipment’s Structures Software that displays and logs your experiment results and gives the extra virtual experiments. Bending Stress in a Beam Essential Ancillaries †¢ Structures Test Frame (STR1) †¢ Digital Force Display (STR1a) Recommended Ancillaries †¢ Structures Software (STRS) for virtual experiments or †¢ Automatic Data Acquisition Unit (STR2000) for automatic data acquisition and virtual experiments Operating Conditions Operating environment: Laboratory environment Storage temperature range: –25? C to +55? C (when packed for transport) Operating temperature range: +5? C to +40? C Operating relative humidity range: 80% at temperatures 31? C decreasing linearly to 50% at 40? C Specification Nett dimensions and weight: 880 x 210 x 100 mm, 6. 5 kg Packed dimensions and weight: Approximately 0. 75 m3, 8 kg Load.

The Strange Case by Robert Louis Stevenson Essay examples -- psycho, sc

The functioning of the average human mind has intrigued and plagued philosophers and thinkers over centuries, one of the most curious and fascinating studies have been made into personages with dual personalities, schizophrenia being one of the factors. Similarly, in the book, The Strange Case, as well as in the film, Psycho, the books are taken place in late Victorian London, but Psycho is in late 60’s in the USA. The respective authors in these two texts portray that duality of human nature exists in society and humanity through the use of characterization and setting. Stevenson in this story uses characterization to describe that duality of human nature exists in humanity and society: â€Å"There comes an end to all things; my evil finally destroyed the balance of my soul†¦all men's respect, wealth...murderer.†( Stevenson 51) Stevenson uses the malaise of Schizophrenia to characterize Dr.Jekyll and his dual personality Mr. Hyde. In the above quote Dr.Jekyll realizes that he has done in justice the whole time without realizing it. Mr. Hyde’s actions have been proven to be inhumane and he has been characterized a â€Å"human juggernaut†; Dr. Jekyll is not solely responsible for his actions because of his dual mindset that precludes an individual from a rational thought process. In the quote above Dr. Jekyll had everyone’s respect and love, and now society labels him as a murderer: â€Å"clubbed him to the earth†¦with ape-like fury†¦shattered†¦the body.†(Stevenson 9) Mr. Hyde is malevolent in nature, â€Å"alone in the ranks of mankind, was pure evil†(Stevenson 45) whereas, Dr.Jekyll is a calm character. He uses â€Å"ape-like fury†, from that he shows embodiment of a murderer. In Psycho, Norman Bates is a maniac with a dual personality. Although... ...to dark areas of the working unstable mind, and which generally are away from the norms of society and wants to experiment with other areas, this what leads to the motivation that could be the dual mindset. The exception could be for an individual who has complete control over his rationality, but is not the case in these given texts. People who have schizophrenia use violence as an essential element to soothe their mind. My reaction to both Psycho and The Strange Case has been one of horror, which I think is a normal reaction of an individual. I have experienced myself having a different personality, not necessarily a dual mindset, in and out of school. In school I tend to show less off my real emotions, than I do outside of school. Even though for me keeping up with societal norms is a ‘must do’ task, failing to keep with societies rules will fail me internally.

Henry VI and the Wars of the Roses Essay -- The Wars of the Roses Essa

From his fifteen year minority to the inept rule of the rest of his reign, Henry VI was a "child", at least as far as governing ability was concerned. The period of his minority and the time that he was the titular king laid the groundwork for the Wars of the Roses. Had Henry been an intelligent king, with at least some political acumen, and the ability to win the respect of his nobles, their may have never been any Wars of the Roses. But his weakness in allowing government by favorites and governing foolishly on his own, at the very least directed his country down the road to a bloody civil war. Henry VI was born on December 6, 1421, and became king of England on September 1, 1422. Problems began almost immediately, though these problems were not seen as such at the time. First, the power of the monarch, instead of being entrusted to one man, was given to a council of magnates. Though it is likely that Henry V included a clause in his will appointing his brother, the Duke of Gloucester, regent, nobles whose powers had been curtailed by Henry V seized the opportunity to regain their lost power. They claimed the precedent of Richard II's minority (Storey, 30) to support their actions. Though the council did rule fairly on the whole, it created a problem. Later in Henry VI's reign, factions ruled the government and the monarch suffered from a lack of cohesive central authority. Nobles who had taken power were reluctant to give it back, causing a spreading out of the king's pwer. Henry's powers as monarch were not kept whole and in trust for him (Storey, 30) so that even had he been a strong king, it would have been difficult for him to control the situations that were to occur. One immediate effect of the council system was to ke... ...families siding for and against the king. Had Henry understood politics, he would not have agreed to ceding Anjou and Maine. If he had known how to govern, he would not have revealed the weakness of his government by handing out pardons to every hard-luck story he heard. In short, had Henry VI even an inkling of how to rule, the Wars of the Roses would not have happened. Works Cited Gillingham, John The Wars of the Roses, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1981. Smith, Lacey Baldwin, This Realm of England, D.C.Heath & Company, Lexington, Massachusetts, 1992. Storey, R.I. The End of the House of Lancaster, Stein & Day Publishers, New York, 1967. Works Consulted Gormley, Larry. â€Å"Wars of the Roses: Battles of the Roses.† n.d. Web. 23 Jan. 2010. Hicks, Michael. The War of the Roses 1455-1487. New York: Routledge, 2003. Print.

Increase and Decrease in Social Capital Essay

The definition of ‘social capital’ is easiest to define when looking at both words separately. Essentially, the ‘capital’ is the breadth, number and subsequent advantages of ‘social’ bonds. As sociologist John Fielding puts it, â€Å"Its central thesis can be summed up in two words: relationships matter.† (Field, J (2008). Social Capital. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge. 1). These relationships may manifest themselves in numerous social contexts, such as in work, family, academic endeavors and so on. Regardless of context, the benefits that Fielding alludes to, and what really ‘matters’, are the accumulative efforts of social groups and the advantages they hold over individual labour. Social capital is especially applicable to our online social networks, and this essay will be analysing cases that support or reject the statement: ‘The internet has been linked both to increases and decreases in social capital’ (Elliso n & Steinfield, 2007). Despite existing since the 1960s, the level of integration within society that the Internet maintains now has only been achieved within the last decade. The flourish of social networking sites that make the Internet such a pivotal tool in our interactions with one another began around the turn of the millennia. Since the inception of sites like MySpace in 2003, the concept of a website where users may display their details and interact with one another has been capitalised on. These networks, often establishing themselves in the form of blogs paved the way to what are now fast becoming our online identities. The emergence of Facebook is exemplary of how online interaction has grown into a social institute. ‘Created in 2004, by 2007 Facebook was reported to have more than 21 million registered member generating 1.6 billion page views each day‘ (Needham & Company, 2007). It is clear from Facebook’s purpose that the avenues of social capital are fortified and strength ened by online social networks. The widespread use of Facebook has revolutionised many aspects of social interaction. Event organization for example, is now almost reliant on Facebook for it’s success. Facebook’s usage has reached such frequency from the population that it is now an eligible and required source of investigation for crime.  The positive effects from this are outlined in the statement ‘Social Capital has been linked to a variety of positive social outcomes, such as better public health, lower crime rates, and more efficient financial markets (Adler & Kwon, 2002). At its core, Facebook exists to support networks of friends (initially college students), and in this sense it promotes social capital by enabling distance-independent communication. Despite these obvious virtues of Facebook however, there is some opposition to the idea that it promotes social capital. Donath and Boyd (2004) argue that social network websites do not promote social capital and societal bonds. Instead, they merely sustain weak, superficial bonds due to the ease and facile nature of online interactions. Examples of this are ‘liking’ friend’s photos, liking status’ and playing games with other Facebook friends. Bargh and McKenna (2004) argues that ‘Internet use distracts from face-to-face time with others, which might diminish an individual’s social capital’. However, it appears this thesis received criticism from Wellman, Haase and Witte who believe that ‘online interactions may supplement or replace in-person interactions, mitigating any loss from the time spent online’. These statements pronounce information on the rocketing popularity of social networking and how it has become the first choice of communication. Another factor to consider is online shopping. EBay is an online auction website where users can bid on items that other users are selling, users can contact each other about the product they are bidding/buying, this is considered a weak connection. EBay has over 14 million active users has is increasingly growing, one would consider that this increases their social capital, an arguments to support this statement is that EBay is a professional business and has rules and regulations to follow if you are a user, these guidelines also state that you should ‘contact the intellectual property owner with any questions before listing’ which encourages and promotes contacting another seller before, during and after you have purchased their product. Harrison (1998) suggested that it is possible to build social capital in the short term and that this is also known as capacity building EBay stems relationships on the Internet by having your favoured users option, this helps you to revisit any company or professional individual you liked shopping with and gives you the opportunity to view other items they have for sale which would increase one’s individual social capital. However,  Kotha et. Al. (2004), denies this and leads on to say ‘customer and relationship services provide a competitive edge for ecommerce traders. These two communicational factors were found to be more beneficial in creating a long term competitive edge than web site usability and product selection, which may provide short term gain but will not create social capital with the user or give them an emotional connection with the brand or product’ (Kotha, S., Rajgopal, S., Venkatachalam, M., (2004) The role of online buying experience as a competitive advantage: evidence from Third Party ratings for ecommerce firms, The Journal of Business, 77) It has also become clear when researching Social Capital that people argue that you cannot measure the increase in Social Capital, it has been argued that ‘without measurement, change cannot be determined’ (Suna, B. (2011). Building Social Capital. http://www.socialcapitalresearch.com/building.html.). Also, according to Putnam (1993), ‘social capital is largely determined by historical factors; it can thus not be enhanced in the short term’. Putnam’s view is also fully supported by Schmidt (2000) and Uslaner and Dekker (2001). They considered social capital as a by-product of other social activities. This intends that websites such as EBay decrease social capital because there is only a short amount of contact with other people. To support this, EBay’s purpose is for buying, selling and bidding. Once a user has bought a product, the probability that they will never get in contact with that user again is very high due to no face-to-face interaction, which makes it hard to build a relationship for some people. The outcome of this is not being able to maintain or create a strong bond between the two, thus decreasing Social Capital. The last factor to consider is News on the Internet. Having news on the Internet is a great way to increase Social Capital. Norris, (2001) argued that ‘the hope that the Internet would be especially useful in encouraging many people to join political discussions has not been realized’. Norris debates that the Internet is has allowed readers to comment on articles and even start discussions about the article they are reading, but not everyone takes advantage of this option. Discussions help build bonds within people who post comments because they are either support ing or arguing about the information at hand. This does not necessarily mean they are building strong bonds, but a connection is made  between many people that could not happen before the News was posted on the Internet. A following point is that the Internet is always accessible. Modern mobile phones now all have access to the Internet, therefore there is nothing stopping individuals obtaining the news. Smartphones have taken this one step further and created an application to access the news for free. Applications make it simpler for individuals to read the news, email articles to friends and express their opinion with the comment option. Smart phones have given individuals the access to enjoy news wherever they are. During these modern times, Law enforcements have taken to updating the news via social networks. Updating social networks spread to a wider audience of readers, keeps readers aware of what is happening in the news and gives the opportunity for individuals to ask questions and in some cases help. This helps increase Social Capital, serious and local news can be discussed between readers and in some cases solve problems. For example, injecting the media sources with information of a missing person spreads the acknowledgment and creates more wide spread enforcements, which is shown in the following statement . ‘Subsequent researchers (Best & Dautrich, 2003; Kavanaugh, Reese, Carroll, & Rosson, 2005; Kobayashi, Ikeda, & Miyata, 2006; Rà ¤sà ¤nen & Kouvo, 2007) found that online communications have a positive effect on individuals’ social trust and participation in community life’ (Valenzuela, S., Park, N. and Kee, K. F. (2009), Is There Social Capital in a Social Network Site?: Facebook Use and College Students’ Life Satisfaction, Trust, and Participatio n; Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication) Overall, all these factors help increase social capital, because they are creating strong bonds between different people, most of who wasn’t aware of others existence. Alternatively, News on the Internet can also decrease social capital. This is because there is again, no face-to-face interaction with other people, therefore making it hard to build relationships and bonds. Discussions can also lead to arguments on the Internet, the lack of face-to-face interaction gives some readers the confidence to vocalise opinions they would not necessarily vocalise when in physical contact with someone. The Internet for a lot of individuals is seen as a shield of protection, and a small percentage of people can voice hateful words on the Internet and no action can be taken. This decreases an individual’s Social Capital, because people would not want to create bonds  with others with view on the Internet. In conclusion, the Internet has been linked to both increase and decrease Social Capital in numerous ways. Social Networking has increased Social Capital by creating bonds between individuals with a variety of positive social aspects, maintaining old friendships and whilst enabling new ones. However, Social Networking also decreases Social Capital due to the lack of face-to-face interaction, and it is also argued that Social Networks ‘merely sustain weak, superficial bonds due to the ease and facile nature of online interactions’ (Donath and Boyd, 2004). Online shopping platforms have also increased Social Capital, EBay forces users to contact each other to ask about products they are selling, users bid/buy products and are sometimes in competition with other users to win the item. This creates bonds between users even though they are weak. The decrease of Social Capital on EBay is the point of no face-to-face interaction, and after the transition is completed, there is no need for you to contact that user again, so this is an example of short term Social Capital. The last point discussed was News on the Internet, the increase of Social Capital in the news is the point of everyone being able to comment or discuss news stories. Alternatively, the decreasing affect of the news on the Internet is also an invitation for arguments and hurtful opinions. References: Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook â€Å"friends:† Social Capital and college students’ use of social networking sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), article 1. (2005). What is Social Capital and how might it be used in Scotland’s schools? Available: http://www.ces.ed.ac.uk/PDF%20Files/Brief036.pdf.). (Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007) ‘The benefits of Facebook â€Å"friends:† Social Capital and college students’ use of online social network sites). Donath, J., & Boyd, D. (2004). Public displays of connection. BT Technology Journal, 22(4), 71–82. Kotha, S., Rajgopal, S., Venkatachalam, M., (2004) The role of online buying experience as a competitive advantage: evidence from ThirdParty ratings for ecommerce firms, The Journal of Business, 77(S2), pp. 109-13. Dekker, P & Uslaner, E (2001). Social Capital and Participation in Everyday Life. London & New York: Routledge. Kilpatrick, S. Falk, I. Harrison, L (1998). Learning in rural communities: a rapid economic change. Australia: Centre of Research and Learning in Regional Australia Best, S., & Dautrich, K. (2003). Reinvigorating democracy: Generating social capital and political participation on the Internet. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, Nashville, TN. Kavanaugh, A., Reese, D., Carroll, J., & Rosson, M. (2005). Weak ties in networked communities. Information Society, 21, 119–131. Kobayashi, T., Ikeda, K. i., & Miyata, K. (2006). Social capital online: Collective use of the Internet and reciprocity as lubricants of democracy. Information, Communication & Society, 9, 582–611. Rà ¤sà ¤nen, P., & Kouvo, A. (2007). Linked or divided by the web Internet use and sociability in four European countries Communication & Society, 10, 219–241. Websites: http://pages.ebay.co.uk/aboutebay/thecompany/companyoverview.html

Free Essays on Ashante Indians

ashanti.com.au/ History of the Ashanti People Asante (Ashanti) History Much of the modern nation of Ghana was dominated from the late 17th through the late 19th century by a state known as Asante. Asante was the largest and most powerful of a series of states formed in the forest region of southern Ghana by people known as the Akan. Among the factors leading the Akan to form states, perhaps the most important was that they were rich in gold. In the 15th and 16th centuries, gold-seeking traders came to Akan country not only from the great Songhay empire (in the modern Republic of Mali) and the Hausa cities of northern Nigeria, but also from Europe. After the Portuguese built the first European fort in tropical Africa at El Mina in 1482, the stretch of the Atlantic coast now in Ghana became known in Europe as the Gold Coast. Akan entrepreneurs used gold to purchase slaves from both African and European traders. Indeed, while Europeans would eventually ship at least twelve million slaves to the Americas (the estimates vary between 20 - 40 million people who were sent to the Americas as slaves from West Africa by European slave traders), they initially became involved in slave trading by selling African slaves to African purchasers. The Portuguese supplied perhaps 12,000 slaves to Akan country between 1500 and 1535, and continued selling slaves from Sao Tome and Nigeria to the Gold Coast throughout the 16th century. Before Benin imposed a ban on slave exports, a Portuguese slave trader reported that at Benin they purchased, "a great number of slaves who were bartered very profitably at El Mina. The labour of these slaves enabled the Akan to expand gold production by developing deep-level mining in addition to panning alluvial soils. Even more importantly, slave labor enabled the Akan to undertake the immensely laborious task of clearing the dense forests of southern Ghana for farming. The most prominent historian of Asante, ... Free Essays on Ashante Indians Free Essays on Ashante Indians ashanti.com.au/ History of the Ashanti People Asante (Ashanti) History Much of the modern nation of Ghana was dominated from the late 17th through the late 19th century by a state known as Asante. Asante was the largest and most powerful of a series of states formed in the forest region of southern Ghana by people known as the Akan. Among the factors leading the Akan to form states, perhaps the most important was that they were rich in gold. In the 15th and 16th centuries, gold-seeking traders came to Akan country not only from the great Songhay empire (in the modern Republic of Mali) and the Hausa cities of northern Nigeria, but also from Europe. After the Portuguese built the first European fort in tropical Africa at El Mina in 1482, the stretch of the Atlantic coast now in Ghana became known in Europe as the Gold Coast. Akan entrepreneurs used gold to purchase slaves from both African and European traders. Indeed, while Europeans would eventually ship at least twelve million slaves to the Americas (the estimates vary between 20 - 40 million people who were sent to the Americas as slaves from West Africa by European slave traders), they initially became involved in slave trading by selling African slaves to African purchasers. The Portuguese supplied perhaps 12,000 slaves to Akan country between 1500 and 1535, and continued selling slaves from Sao Tome and Nigeria to the Gold Coast throughout the 16th century. Before Benin imposed a ban on slave exports, a Portuguese slave trader reported that at Benin they purchased, "a great number of slaves who were bartered very profitably at El Mina. The labour of these slaves enabled the Akan to expand gold production by developing deep-level mining in addition to panning alluvial soils. Even more importantly, slave labor enabled the Akan to undertake the immensely laborious task of clearing the dense forests of southern Ghana for farming. The most prominent historian of Asante, ...

Essay on INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOCULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY

Essay on INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOCULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY Essay on INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOCULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY Essay on INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOCULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGYThe history of linguistics and philosophy contains different views on the nature of metaphor and its function from understanding of a metaphor as a linguistic expression and a rhetorical means to hyperbolizing its role in man’s cognition of the world. Modern science recognizes the metaphor as the tool and the result of the interpretation of reality, a way and the fact of thinking; metaphor gets a definition as not merely linguistic but a conceptual phenomenon.From a formal point of view, the metaphorical transfer consists in using words (phrases, sentences) intended to denote certain objects (situations) of reality to name or characterize other objects (situations) based on a conditional sameness of the predictive signs attributed to them. At the level of the structural pattern of a sentence, the metaphorical transfer is expressed in the use of the structural pattern that describes a particular extralinguistic s ituation to refer to the situation of a different kind. From a content-related point of view, according to linguists and cognitologists, metaphor at any level is a cognitive/conceptual mapping of one area of human experience over another (Landau, Meier, Robinson, 2013).As the basic objects of analysis in metaphorology researchers (G. Lakoff, M. Johnson et al.) distinguish three groups of cognitive structures of metaphorical expansion:Source domain (war, theatre, man, inanimate nature, plants, animals, sport, disease, monarchy, family, school, etc.);Target domain (politics, parties, states, the President, elections, parliament, economy, laws, inflation, terrorism, etc.);Basic cognitive structures (ours/theirs, us/them, good/bad, etc.) (Lakoff, Johnson, 2003).Here are some explicit examples of metaphors cited by Max Black (1962):The chairman plowed through the discussion.A smoke screen of witnesses.An argumentative melodyBlotting-paper voices (Henry James)The poor are negroes of Europ e (Sebastian Roch Nicolas de Chamfort)Light is but the shadow of God (Sir Thomas Browne)Oh dear white children, casual as birds, Playing amid the ruined languages (Auden)In this way, when we use a metaphor, we have in mind two thoughts about two different things with these ideas interacting with each other within a single word or an expression, the meaning of which is the result of this interaction. Let us analyze an example from this standpoint: â€Å"The poor are negroes of Europe† (Chamfort). According to substitutional point of view, the statement implicitly says something about poor people of Europe. But what exactly? Is it that they are the oppressed class, the eternal challenge to officially proclaimed ideals, that poverty is indelible and inherited trait? According to a comparative point of view, this expression contains a comparison between the poor and illiterate (taking into account the time when the statement was made). In contrast to both of these points of view, Richards (2004) would say that our thoughts about the poor Europeans and American negroes interact and penetrate each other to generate a new meaning.This means that in this context the focal word â€Å"negroes† gets the new meaning of which we cannot say that it completely coincides with its literal meaning, or that it is equal to the literal meaning of any other word allowable in this context. New context (â€Å"frame† of the metaphor) causes the expansion of the meaning of the focal word. Richards implies that for a metaphor to work, the reader must constantly be aware of the expansion of the meanings and refer to the old and new meaning simultaneously (Black, 1962; Richards, 2004).Peter Newmark, known in linguistic circles as a translator-practician, in his â€Å"Textbook of Translation† highlights two functions of the metaphor: connotative and aesthetic (cited in Geary, 2012). Connotative function refers to the ability of metaphor to describe in more detai l both specific and abstract concepts, to express ideas brighter and deeper characterize the quality of the described object. And it is important to correctly assess whether the semantic domain of a metaphor is positive or negative. Let us consider the following sentence: â€Å"German bosses of the 1990’s were Jack Welches of Germany†. What did the author have in mind comparing the heads of major German companies to Jack Welch? We know that in 1999, Jack Welch was voted the manager of the century. Thus, the metaphor has obvious positive overtones. We can paraphrase the sentence as follows: â€Å"Talented managers headed the major German companies.† Aesthetic function, in turn, refers to the ability of metaphors to have aesthetic impact on the reader, interest and surprise (Geary, 2012).In many areas of social communication, for example, in politics, metaphor serves as an important means of cognition and explanation of the world, an effective means of pragmatic i mpact on the consciousness of the mass audience.Thus, opposition in the Bundestag (German Parliament) uses a metaphor for the negative characteristics of the Kanzler Merkel’s performance: â€Å"Merkel-Regierung hat versagt, sie selbst sei nur noch â€Å"Geschftsfà ¼hrerin† der Regierung† (Merkel’s government is not doing its job, and she is only a manager and not the head of the government) (Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung). Accepting the metaphorical model proposed by a politician (e.g., the economy is a sick person), we at the same time accept all the consequences that follow from it (for example, the fact that the patient (the economy) can be saved by the doctor (head of the state) and new methods of treatment (economic reforms). Here it is appropriate to recall the well-known term â€Å"shock therapy†. To illustrate this, we offer the examples of metaphorical newspaper titles in Germany: â€Å"Union und FDP: Die lange Nacht der Gruppentherapie † (CDU and FDP: The Long Night of Group Therapy), â€Å"Regierungserklrung zur Energiewende: Eine Herkulesaufgabe† (Government Statement on Energy Policy: a Herculean Task), Ein Maulwurf in der FDP (A Mole in the FDP) (Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung).Thus, metaphor is a powerful means to influence or even manipulate the audience. Should a metaphor be considered a lie then? Based on the definition a lie as a statement of the imaginary as the real, and/or the real as the imaginary, we can infer that metaphors state the true, however, in a misleading way. They contain a cipher. Metaphor is a lie, which does not particularly seek to appear as the truth, because both the speaker and listener as implied understand that the statement is not the truth (Geary, 2012). They seem to wink at each other and slyly smile, and the listener already begins to look for a different meaning of the said (if the one understands the lies, and has a key to deciphering the metaphor). Both are i nvolved in a social game, because the first innocently lies, and the second solves the riddles.On a whole, metaphor is not limited to the sphere of language: the very processes of human thinking are largely metaphorical. As a phenomenon of consciousness, metaphor is manifested not only in communication as such, but also in thought and in action, social and political patterns, as well as involves intercultural meanings and conceptual reality.